Skip to main content. By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. Log In Sign Up. Unfollow Follow Unblock. Other Affiliations:. This study extends understanding of and demonstrates the importance of corporate branding in the energy sector. We analyse the relationship between branding and consumer switching behaviour among the UK's Big Six electricity providers We analyse the relationship between branding and consumer switching behaviour among the UK's Big Six electricity providers.
Since privatization companies have competed against each other, but to the consumer they often appear to have very similar product offerings; firms also face criticism from consumer groups regarding confusing and difficult to compare pricing schemes. This study examines the use of corporate branding to enhance differentiation and specifically examines the influence of brand consistency and brand personality on the retention of customers.
Consumers, who find it difficult to compare tariffs, may be influenced by more demonstrable factors like branding. We demonstrate the importance of longitudinal brand consistency, as well as the personality dimension excitement, which when communicated strongly has the greatest influence on customer retention levels. This work contributes to branding theory, demonstrating that brand personality does differentiate otherwise homogeneous and low-contact services.
Managerial implications are presented for brands seeking to improve consumer retention. Research suggests UK universities do not consistently communicate across all audiences, whilst previous literature recognises brand consistency as important. However, this literature is based predominantly on anecdote, or on evidence from single cases. For each HEI, a prospectus was obtained, and the websites and Twitter feeds of the institutions were downloaded.
This provided 18,, words to analyse. The data was then analysed to test the research hypotheses, using statistical analysis techniques.
These looked for relationships between brand personality, strength, consistency, and performance. Results highlighted a positive correlation between brand personality consistency relating to the prospectus and website, and HEI research and recruitment performance. This agrees with the existing literature, which suggests that brands represent crucial aspects of success in mature markets, and that consistency can be a key driver in creating strong brands.
This research shows that these findings extend into the HE context. Acknowledgements This research project could not have been accomplished without the help and support of many people. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the contributions of several outstanding figures.
Foremost, I would like to offer sincere thanks to my first supervisor, Professor Fiona Lettice. Her time, knowledge, help, responsiveness, encouragement and approachability were sincerely appreciated throughout my PhD process. I would also like to thank my second supervisor, Professor Stuart Barnes, for his time, knowledge and expert critique.
Special thanks are deserved to Dr Liam Aspin for his selfless help and mastery of statistics, which was valued throughout my academic journey, as well as Dr Jackie Grainslee for her extremely helpful comments.
I would also like to extend heartfelt thanks to my family. My parents have provided constant support and great encouragement, as has my girlfriend Emma, and my sister Terri-Ann. I would also like to record appreciation and thanks to fellow PhD colleagues, whose friendship has made this process much easier. Finally, I would also like to express my appreciation to the University of East Anglia and Norwich Business School for funding my PhD, allowing me to serve as an Associate Tutor, and providing a bursary in addition to the extensive training received.
Research Aims and Questions 13 1. Research Methodology 13 1. Structure of Thesis 13 2. Brand Management 15 2. Brand Communication 55 2. Summary of Literature Review 88 3. Higher Education Sector 91 3. Brands in Higher Education 3. Summary of Higher Education Sector 4. Research Philosophy 5. Collecting and Analysing the Data 5.
Main Study 5. Summary of Methodology 6. Brand Personality Consistency 6. Social Media Participation 6. Brand Personality Strength 6. Hypotheses Overview 6. Summary of Findings 7. Brand Personality Consistency 7. Social Media 7. Summary of Discussion 8. Theoretical Contribution 8. Management Implications 8. Limitations and Further Research 8. Online Brand Elements 2. Analysis Summary 3. UK University League Tables 4. Twitter against institutional performance groupings Introduction Increased pressure on Higher Education Institutions HEIs is leading to increased national and international competition for students and research funding Brandt et al.
This, in turn, is leading to an increase in managerialism and new public management techniques within the sector Brown, This has meant that tools and practices traditionally used within the corporate sector are increasingly employed by HEIs.
An area in which this change is particularly apparent is in the use of marketing and brand management, which is largely used in order to attract students and build reputation. Chapleo et al. This definition is widely used in the literature Kotler et al. De Chernatony and McDonald agree, and criticise the above definition as reliant on the visual features of a brand rather than more intangible benefits.
Researchers have attempted to measure brands and brand value, and these efforts have led to research in areas including brand equity, brand awareness, brand associations, brand experience and brand personality. This earlier work on measuring brand and brand value was performed with more traditional organisations in mind, and came about before many organisations developed an internet presence or related marketing channels. Since the development of such channels, the interest in online brands has increased.
There are now two key streams of brand personality research. The first looks at the overall brand personality, while the other looks at online brand personality and website delivery. Although research has argued for the need for consistency within a brand Matthiesen and Phau, , little if any research has considered whether brand personality remains consistent between multiple marketing communication channels Meyers and Gerstman, , and whether this affects brand or organisational performance.
Most research in the area of online brands is orientated around assessing and measuring the performance of online brands, rather than how consistently brands communicate across marketing channels Meyers and Gerstman, Research has also highlighted that transferring an existing brand to the internet can be problematic Rangaswamy and Van Bruggen, , indicating the importance of a robust methodology to measure consistency once the transfer is complete.
In order to measure consistency between offline and online text more effectively, a measure of online brand personality has been developed Opoku et al. This specifically builds upon brand personality Aaker, and the dimensions of sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication and ruggedness. This is done by taking synonyms of the original dimension facets, and building a dictionary which can be used to analyse text content and position different marketing channels on a correspondence map.
The correspondence map can then be used to observe consistency in brand personality between media. Another key development for organisations since the original branding research was performed has been the use of social media to communicate with customers. Social media is designed to be consumed through interactions of a social nature, created to be widely available and scalable through the use of technology Kaplan and Haenlein, Organisations are using social media to cut the cost of their overall marketing budget, increase return on investment and ultimately boost their profit margins Bernhardt et al.
Strong and distinctive brand communication may increase the amount of attention paid to the brand by consumers, which in turn creates stronger and more favourable brand associations Freling and Forbes, Empirical evidence suggests that stronger brands are able to communicate both quality and their uniqueness more effectively Keller, , which results in consistency patterns of associations communicated and also brand congruence the level of agreement and synergy within the communication.
These, in turn, improve organisational performance. Although there is much research on branding within marketing, less investigation has been carried out on how effectively these brands are transferred online. Some authors argue that the concept of branding transfers directly to the education sector Hemsley-Brown and Oplatka, , whilst others argue that HEIs are more complex and that this renders conventional brand management irrelevant.
Such authors argue that more specialist approaches are needed Jevons, From the literature review, it can be concluded that research into brand management in the higher education sector is still relatively undeveloped, and that further research is needed to better understand brand communication issues within HEIs.
There is also a need for more research into how organisations consistently manage their brand and marketing Brandt et al. Although brand consistency is recognised as important de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, ; M'zungu et al.
This research will therefore collect empirical data across a range of HEIs to establish whether or not brand personality consistency across multiple marketing channels affects HEI performance, and if so, how. Many universities have found that their intake of students in has been smaller than in previous years, leading to a shortfall. This can be attributed to a number of factors, including the recent policy and structural changes in higher education, advocacy of new public management techniques by government and policy makers, increased tuition fees, increased competition from both national and international students, and the global recession.
This environment increases the value of the findings of this study, both in building and adding to the literature, but also in providing practical guidance to both policy makers and HEI managers and administrators.
It is submitted that this research provides a useful insight into whether ideas maintained within the literature actually apply within an environment of large scale change, and whether future findings will differ as the sector adapts to new conditions.
Further, the findings will provide guidance to HEI stakeholders in the UK wishing to better manage the way in which they conduct their marketing communications activities. Research Aims and Questions Based on the gaps identified in the literature, this research aims to establish empirically whether there is a relationship between brand personality strength and consistency across multiple marketing channels and HEI performance.
Therefore this research was designed to answer the following research questions: 1. Is brand personality consistency and strength positively related to UK university performance? Is the impact of Social Media significant between brand personality strength, consistency and performance? Answering these questions will involve taking these higher level research questions and formulating more detailed hypotheses.
Website, social media and prospectus information is readily available as secondary data. There is also a considerable amount of data available in the public domain on HEI performance, published in various league tables. The approach to this research was therefore to collect and analyse this secondary data.
A positivist philosophy was adopted as brand personality can be relatively, objectively and quantifiably measured using brand personality measurement scales. Statistical analysis techniques can be used to search for relationships between the available data to test the research hypotheses.
This research is therefore deductive and explanatory. Structure of Thesis This thesis is divided into eight chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the thesis. This chapter also highlights key gaps within the literature. Chapter 3 examines the Higher Education sector and how brand management has thus far been utilised. Chapter 4 subsequently introduces the research hypotheses, based upon the literature review. The methodology can be found in Chapter 5, including its epistemological and ontological underpinnings and subsequent research design based upon the research objectives.
An overview of the positivist approach and the quantitative methods adopted is also outlined here. Chapter 6 outlines the statistical analysis of this research, details the outcomes of the correlation and regression analysis, tests the research hypotheses and presents the findings. Chapter 7 discusses the findings and links them back to the literature review and research questions.
It highlights the key contributions of this research. Chapter 8 concludes this research and provides an overview of future research, the limitations of the research and its practical implications. The thesis structure is outlined in Figure 1 below: 1. Introduction 2. Literature Review 2. Higher Education Sector 3. Research Hypotheses 5. Research Methodology 6. Statistical Analysis 7. Discussion 8. Literature Review This chapter concentrates on published literature linked to the research objectives.
Hence the appropriate literature is established, reviewed and critiqued in two distinct sections: 1. Brand Management. This section reviews the brand literature from brand inception through to more contemporary definitions of brand identity.
It considers how brands are measured, including brand personality, and discusses the relationship between brand consistency and organisational performance. Brand Communication. This section discusses how brands are communicated across multiple media and from multiple perspectives, ranging from paper based documents to websites and social media, including discussing how these communications are made, consistently and through the use of brand metaphors, such as brand personality.
The literature review begins broadly by examining prior research surrounding brand management then focuses upon how brands are communicated, over multiple channels, through brand metaphors and specifically, consistently.
Brand Management Previous research has argued that brands need to be managed Kay, in such a way to create and sustain their strength. Kelly and Lewi , p. This section focuses firstly on the concept of brands, how they are defined and constructed. Secondly, it discusses the process by which brands are managed, including brand measures such as recall and awareness.
Finally modern branding concepts including brand personality and brand consistency are examined and linked to the performance of organisations. Brand Identity broadly discusses the processes by which a brand positions itself. It identifies brand positioning from multiple perspectives of brand definitions, ranging from the brand as a logo to anthropomorphisation. Strategic brand managers mix and match elements of these definitions to create marketing campaigns.
Measuring Brands involves tracking the equity and performance of a brand, in order to strategise actions which grow and sustain the brand further. These include measurements such as brand awareness recall and recognition and brand image, encompassing a variety of definitions such as brand personality.
Brand Personality is a concept originally coined within branding practice, but has since been adopted within academic research. Evolving from the discipline of psychology, specifically human personality literature, it recognises the humanistic aspect of brands. It emphasises the relationship that a brand has with customers, which explains its wide acceptance within branding literature.
Online Brand Environment is now a fundamental concept in brand management. Brands practitioners have therefore adapted to this new context through a variety of methods and processes, in order to effectively communicate brand elements and interact with consumers. Brand Consistency is the process of ensuring that a brand is continually over time consistent across marketing communication , bringing many benefits such as increased efficiency of brand communications.
These, in turn, can be linked to organisational performance. Brands and Performance focuses on the crucial relationship between the two. This shift in emphasis is attributed to a range of contemporary issues, with emphasis on financial performance. The literature review in subsequent sections begins by examining multiple definitions and measures of brand equity which are used within the processes of strategic brand management.
It then considers the most prominent measures within the literature, most notably measures which address the human relationship aspect of branding such as brand personality. The review then focuses on less developed areas such as brand consistency, with an emphasis on multiple channel consistency. Lastly the linkages between branding activities and organisational performance are discussed.
Brand Identity This section identifies brand positioning from multiple perspectives and brand definitions. This process enables brand managers to mix and match brand elements and metaphors to create marketing campaigns and communicate advantages, whilst alleviating disadvantage concerns.
Whilst the concept of strategic brand management is a relatively young concept, the literature provides examples of early proto-brands involving the communication of advantages and assurance of quality which date back to BC. Brand Evolution Brands have been present for as long as has been possible to trace artefacts of human existence.
A typical prototype-brand attached information to a product or its packaging with three main purposes in mind. Firstly, it was intended to provide information regarding the source of origin, usually in the form of a known symbol, signature or even in the physical properties of a raw material.
Secondly, it provided a basic marketing function which may have included sorting, transporting and storing. Thirdly, it provided information as to quality, which would reduce the risk for consumers during product recall situations. For example, the origin of a product could increase perceived quality. Records and artefacts dating back to Egyptian times show that producers of bricks marked their products with symbols in order for them to be easily identifiable, as materials from certain areas were of better quality.
Similarly, in medieval Europe, trade guilds required "trademarks" to be placed upon goods as a confirmation to a purchaser of consistent quality, while also offering a simplistic form of legal brand ownership Farquhar, Producers recognised the strength of associating a brand name with a product, making products easier for consumers to recall and differentiate from those of their competitors.
For example, in the nineteenth century, high-quality whiskey tended to be associated with smugglers and their unique process of distilling alcohol. The concept of brands has evolved since the s from being a simple identification device into a comprehensive identity system representing meaning, purpose and direction Kapferer, Brand Definitions Brands have become invaluable as an intangible asset of an organisation, and therefore require strategic management Keller, Creating and nurturing strong brands can be of significant advantage to organisations, but the process also poses considerable challenges.
De Chernatony and Dall'Olmo Riley , p. This is the aspect of brand which is fundamentally concerned with differentiation through name and visual identity. This definition of a brand is important when considering brand awareness, specifically brand recognition. This is demonstrated within the supermarket sector by companies such as Tesco, which provide branded products such as Tesco petrol, insurance, finest foods and many other own brands.
This can be contrasted with a house of brands company such as Nestle, which has 6, product brands ranging from cereals to pet care Aaker, This is to improve recollection of information, resulting in faster transaction judgments Cohen, ; Jain and Golosinski, This allows brands to present their products in order to increase confidence and lower perceived risk. It becomes increasingly important for brands to provide consistent quality within products and services in order to realise potential as a risk reducer.
To realise the true value of this system, it is essential that the brands meaning is understood, aligned between the employee and the consumer and consistent through all facets of the organisation Jones, In particular, this means that any gaps between the employees and consumers should be reduced Davies and Chun, Brands are able to convey a certain image through advertising strategies.
These perceptions, beliefs and associations held by consumers provide a differential effect between brands and products Mody-Kamdar and Srivastava, In order for a consumer to find value in a brand, it is required that alignment exists between themselves and the heritage of the brand.
It involves attributing human characteristics to a non-human creature or physical object. Brand personality represents the character of the brand as if it were a person Phau and Lau, ; Cappara et al. If brands can be anthropomorphised, consumers will not only recognise, but interact and form relationships with them Aaker et al. Through each stage, the emphasis of a brand progressively shifts from company to consumer Rowley, For instance, an unbranded entity becomes a logo, then develops a personality and a relationship with consumers, and finally has values added to its original existence.
The brand as a logo is the most widely used in the literature Aaker, ; Kotler et al. Crainer and De Chernatony criticise the definition as reliant on the visual features of a brand rather than more intangible benefits.
Chaffey , p. Added values are more intangible, but of equal importance. Measuring Brand Equity Brands can be both created and destroyed by marketing management efforts. Much research has already been conducted into the measurement of traditional aspects of brand.
The most prominent early conceptual frameworks within the literature are consumer- related bases of brand equity Aaker, ; Aaker, b such as brand loyalty, awareness, and perceived quality. These are related to other associations which tend to measure the consumer response to the brand and knowledge-related bases of brand equity Keller, , including awareness recognition and recall and image brand metaphors and associations.
These two schools of thought have arrived at very similar conclusions and effectively offer two terms for near-identical frameworks.
A multitude of methods for measuring each individual source further contributes to the study of consumer based brand equity. For this reason, researchers began to adopt methods of measuring levels of awareness, and today, whilst there are various methods, the most prominent of these are recognition and recall.
The depth of awareness reflects the probability that brands can be recognised or recalled, whilst breadth relates to the range of consumption circumstances in which the brand is recalled Kapferer, ; Van Gelder, The decision which measurement researchers choose to examine is dependent upon the range of purchase situations for the brand.
If research highlights that consumers make their decisions at the point-of-purchase, as can be the case if there are many brand names with differing packaging, it will be of increased importance that the consumer is able to recognise and be aware of the brand visually.
This can involve a variety of situations, aimed to probe how likely recognition is in a particular circumstance. At their simplest, brand recognition procedures involve providing a visual or oral stimuli, whilst stakeholders discriminate against those which they have previously seen or heard. This specific type of brand awareness test is used mainly in situations during which stakeholder decisions are made at the point of sale. If the brand is not able to act visually, recall is of greater importance.
However, rather than relying on visual reinforcement, prompts are given in the form of probes and cues. These prompts typically take the form of two different categories of probe. Some studies have attempted to relate brand awareness to performance Homburg et al. This involved measuring awareness of brands through multiple measures including recognition and recall, and then drawing comparisons between the level of market awareness and the performance, as measured by unit sales, achieved.
Brand Image Brand image represents a set of brand associations Lassar et al. This measure emphasises the importance of image commercially, arguing that stakeholders react to what they perceive as being reality Godin, , rather than actual reality Kapferer, Associations include brand beliefs, brand performance, brand meaning and brand personality. Beliefs are usually measured through qualitative research asking consumers about their opinions of brands.
For instance, consumers may have beliefs regarding the operating level of a product or even design features which may be unique to it. This includes factors such as the consistency of actual performance with expectations over the lifetime of the product, and also includes the service provided, such as the speed and quality of service upon delivery. Price creates an impression of quality in the minds of stakeholders, related to the price tier within a specific brand category.
Higher prices are typically linked with higher levels of perceived quality. For example, Power and Hauge , p. Associations can also be linked to specific instances in which the brand should be used, for example a particular time of the day or week, the location of intended use, or the type of activity it is used for. For example, the brand may be associated with a song which has emotional associations for the consumer. Specifically brand attachment scales have been developed to measure the power of connection between consumer and brand Whan Park et al.
For example, research can highlight that McDonald's is seen as being more competent and exciting than Burger King Keller and Lehmann, This has taken the form of multiple constructs and measurement scales being developed, and these have often been adapted from human personality studies.
This section is broken into the following subsections, which can be summarised as: 1. Evolution of Personality Scales. Originally stemming from individualism Funder, , the evolution of personality scales provides a key understanding of how brands develop personalities today, with the most prominent brand personality construct being comprised from early work on human personality.
Evolution of Brand Personality. Researchers on brand theory have accepted the anthropomorphised aspect of a brand and its personality Berry, ; Durgee, ; Levy, for decades. Measuring Brand Personality. Evolution of Personality Scales The concept of personality developed its roots around the philosophical-political climate of western civilisation and individualism the belief that individuals are important and unique , which grew rapidly during and after the Renaissance Allport, In the Middle Ages, people were largely conscious only of themselves as a member of a certain group race, family, corporation etc.
Sigmund Freud was the first psychologist to theorise a concept of personality Freud, , defining three distinct constructs; the id, ego and super-ego. He stated that these constructs were part of the psychic apparatus of the personality. Although today these constructs have been largely discredited due to lack of evidence, at the time Freud used them to describe the overall personality as something dynamic, cumulative and durable over time consistent.
Hence there is no reason for believing that an individual needs to be measured in order to understand what he or she will do and think.
This, however, remains a minority view. During the s, researchers expanded upon the work of Leary which focused upon interpersonal diagnostics of personality. These results renewed interest in the formulation of a single systematic taxonomy of personality traits Gray, ; Wiggins and Broughton, Loehlin was the first theorist to propose a more mathematical measurement system of traits by creating a list of adjectives.
These were presented to subjects, and the outcome and factor analysed to conclude which carried the most weight. A framework was then constructed involving extraversion-introversion, neuroticism and psychoticism.
Today, personality research suggests five core dimensions of personality, and support for this number has been steadily increasing over the last fifty years. However, whilst the number has a large foundation of support, the exact title of each dimension has varied. There remains a lack of agreement upon a final five Maltby et al. This ranges from work on the link between traits on job applications Brusman, with performance applicants exhibiting low neuroticism, high levels of openness, medium levels of conscientiousness and extraversion are more likely to be successful leaders within an organisation , to patriotism Steel et al.
Generally the scale is used by measuring the level of each trait, and in consumer research can take the form of questionnaires using Likert scales. These include its disposition Pierre, , with King , p. Marketing practitioners expressed dissatisfaction with limiting their brand definition simply to performance related features, and this led to phenomena such as the USP Unique Selling Point Evans, It became increasingly apparent that more consumers were basing their purchasing decisions upon non-product based features of the brand Azoulay and Kapferer, The design and identity of brands began to reflect this change in consumer marketing, striving to convey brand values along with immaterial differential product extensions Olins, As the concept evolved, marketing agencies began to reinforce the immaterial brand based features of products.
This began in the s, and involved creating copy strategies which began to describe a personality, whilst also stating the brand promise. Further academic research began to define the brand personality construct and Plummer , p. As brand personality has evolved today, it represents the character of the brand as if it were a person. This is otherwise known as anthropomorphisation Patterson, It involves attributing human characteristics to the brand, and is a way to create uniqueness by reinforcing those human psychological values to which consumers relate, beyond mere performance and functionality.
Therefore, brand personality is the requirement for a relationship between consumers and brands. When brands are anthropomorphised, consumers will not only perceive them, but also have a relationship with them. A dominant model of this phenomenon exists today, which was originally produced by Jennifer Aaker and has been adopted by a significant number of studies. Measuring Brand Personality This section identifies and reviews how brand personality can be measured, and discusses the most prominent frameworks within the literature.
Brand personality measurements originate from both academic researchers and brand practitioners, the difference usually being that practitioner methodologies are secretive and that the intellectual rights to them belong to a company.
Today, many advertising campaigns reflect the managerial emphasis on brand personality, both in terms of traits and how best to personify brands. Originally, studies were more focused upon product personality and the level of congruence between consumer identity and the product Birdwell, ; Dolich, Malhotra built upon these early theoretical concepts, advocating brand personality scales and the need to ensure validity.
He further outlined a procedure of scale development for self-perspective, person and product concepts, which have been used within subsequent studies Aaker, Four Faculties provide research-led teaching with academic rigor in a range of subjects across the Sciences , Arts and Humanities , Social Sciences , and Medicine and Health Sciences.
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